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Cover and back cover description

In the United States parties are governed by their constituents. With the primary elections voters choose candidates in general elections. With the convention establishing the program and governing the electoral party. The first part of the book traces the history of the process of nomination of candidates from 1789 to present. The second part examines the functioning of modern political parties, focusing on the involvement of the electorate, the role of conventions, the guarantees of transparency and respect for the will of the people. Updated with data on the primaries of 2008.

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Paper

Damiano Anselmi


Conventions and primaries:

the party system ruled by the voters

Damiano Anselmi © 2007
First published in April 2007,
Update: December 2007

Picture front cover: James Kingman © Fotolia
back cover image: © Fotolia FocalPoint

Introduction

Part One. History of the nomination process for candidates and the party system ruled by the voters

Phase the congressional caucus

The meaning of the term "caucus"
Top factions
Birth of congressional caucus
The first party system
The stalling of the 1800
The domain Republican
The apogee of the congressional caucus
The decline of the congressional caucus
The reasons for the decline of the congressional caucus
The local caucus
The legislative caucus

Step System caucus / convention

Birth of the popular convention
to the second party system
Birth of the national convention
The caucus / convention
The second party system
Evolution of the National Convention
1842: the first primary in the history
The third party system
The delegations to the national convention
The first primary state
The practical restrictions on voting rights
with the primary ballot of the South

phase of the primary / caucus / convention

The historical context that led to the presidential primary
The populist party
Progressive Era
The first laws on primary presidential
1912: The duel between Roosevelt and Taft
1912-1924: the first period of the presidential primary
Applications
selection of delegates and preference for candidates for appointment
The ballots
The electorate of the primary
1916: the reconciliation between Republicans and Republican-Progressive
1920: the smoke-filled rooms
1924 the "dark horse" democratic
1928-1944: the decline of presidential primaries
1948-1964: the revival of presidential primaries

phase of the primary direct

1968: the transition
1972: McGovern-Fraser reforms
The first experiment of the new era
1976-1988: Corrections and mini-counter-
Republicans and reform of the appointment process
effects of the reforms
1976: the rise of an "unknown"
1980: Reagan's statement
1984-1988: the Republican must
1992-1996: the Democratic victory
2000-2004: the return of the Republicans in the White House
Outsider candidates and party
The role of "third parties"

Part Two. The party system ruled by the voters

Elections primary

citizen voter registration
Electorate admitted to vote
ballots
Financing and costs of primary and general election
voters of the primary
turnout in the primaries
The legislation

The presidential primary

Election of delegates to the national convention
The caucus modern
the 2000 presidential primaries
2004 Presidential Primaries
Primary 2008 presidential primaries
sequential
The sequencing of the presidential primary
The Iowa caucus
The New Hampshire primary
The regionalization of the primaries and their concentrations in the initial phase

Convention delegates

Convocation, location, time of year
committees, standing committees and work schedule
The paper
The Democratic National Convention
Republican National Convention
The media coverage and funding of the convention
local Convention
The rule of an absolute majority

Organization party

statutes and regulations
National committees

Conclusions

Bibliography

Documents

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Democracy must be conceived as a universal concept. It can be adapted, in detail, in many different contexts, but the substance can not depend on its particular realization. Yet, there are now democracies profoundly different. For example, American democracy differs substantially from the European democracies, in the forms of participation and involvement of voters, in the nature, structure and organization of parties, in the actual power enjoyed by the voters. Perhaps the explanation of the contradiction present made of diversity and universality are incompatible, is that the meaning of the universal concept of democracy is not yet completely clear. To better understand it is useful to know about the American democracy, how it has evolved to its modern form, as it functions today and how it worked in the past, what role they have and have had the voters, as political parties, what tools are used to give voice to the people.

Today, American democracy is properly the values \u200b\u200band aspirations of the American people, is efficient and transparent. To achieve this goal, it took two centuries, and a dynamism and adaptability overtime. A gradual evolutionary movement, spontaneous and irreversible, of which only now can we appreciate the end, produced a system very different from what the founding fathers had in mind: the party system ruled by their constituents.

The basic tools of modern American popular government parties are the convention of delegates and the direct primary. Through primary voters nominate candidates for election and their representatives (delegates) to the convention. The convention is the highest authority of the party, down the rules, addresses political activity, develop the program and decide on any election matter it considers appropriate. Interrelated in a manner that will explain in detail, the primary and the convention should ensure the full, timely and fair participation of voters in all activities of the party and the proper representation of popular will.

Outside the United States, primary elections are more the exception than the rule. Sporadic experiments were performed recently in Europe, in some states of South America and Asia. Of the party system ruled by the voters, that the system convention / primary, relevant examples are not known outside the United States.

We used to call any representative democracy a system in which the people's representatives are elected by the people, not cure us of how candidates are selected. Still, the selection of candidates is a crucial step in the process of selecting representatives. Similarly, do not attach much importance to the internal functioning of parties. As a free association of free citizens, political parties can certainly regulate as they see fit, but it is also true that in evaluating a democracy should be taken into account the real possibility of voter participation. Because the parties act, or should serve, a bridge between citizens and institutions, is more necessary than ever deal in detail their role and their function. If the parties do not work properly, not working democracy. We return to the meaning of the concept of democracy, and its universality. You can talk about representative democracy when the nominations are decided from above, without any popular consultation, in summit meetings involving a limited number of persons, or informal meetings between heads of party leaders and elected representatives-current? Democracy is one in which the parties decide their own rules without consulting the voters? That's where there are "members" who buy the "weave" that is charged for a privilege what should be their right, the right to participate equally in decisions of the party which is acknowledged? This explains the lack of diversity and universality of which we spoke above: we often use the word democracy to mean any system other than the patently non-democratic systems, such as dictatorship, totalitarianism, monarchy, aristocracy, the ' oligarchy, and so on. Not characterized ziamo democracy in the affirmative and sufficiently accurate for what it is . Usually this "negative", that is, for what it is not . However, among the many "non-dictators" as possible, maybe equipped with elections, one is the democracy.

For a political system can be called representative democracy requires that all the steps of the process leading to the selection of representatives of the citizens are left to the voters. In particular, voters should nominate candidates for election, to establish the rules of the parties, the political program and the electoral program. Each voter must be guaranteed full, timely and equal opportunity to participate in all decisions of the party. Finally, voters should be consulted in ways that ensure the correct representation of their will. In other words, democracy requires that the parties are governed by their constituents.

In the past, U.S. policy through difficulties similar to those currently afflicting the Italian politics. Among these, mention the lack of transparency, the incorrect representation of popular will, the problem of applications decided from above, without any popular consultation, or even reversing the outcome of the referenda, the current policy, and factional bosses ; the exhausting controversies and disputes between supporters of rival factions; agreements compromise in not to upset anyone, the lack of objective criteria to identify the strongest candidates and popular, and with more chance of beating opponents, the elite control exercised by privileged groups in the process of selecting representatives of the people. These problems were overcome less than forty years ago, after almost two centuries of attempts.

In the first part of the book we will study the history of American parties, from its origins to modern times, focusing on their organization and structure, forms of voter participation, the process of nomination of candidates . In the second part will analyze the operation the open party system and ruled by the voters, made up of direct primaries and conventions. The elections for public office, as opposed to primary elections, will be called "general elections".

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Introduction History of the nomination process for candidates and the party system ruled by the voters

Today in the U.S. primary elections are used to select candidates for any type of elections, and conventions governing political parties at all levels. To understand the historical process that led to the party system ruled by the voters, it is useful to focus on the national convention, the presidential primaries and functioning of political parties at national level. At the same time, however, need to be discussed in some detail even the local convention, the local primary and functioning of political parties at local level.

American politics has always been dominated by two major parties, who throughout history have often changed electorate of reference, position and political objectives. However, the minor parties at various times, also called "third parties", gave important contributions, sometimes crucial, to the evolutionary process of American democracy. For this reason it is necessary to include in our analysis, also third parties. The history of American parties is divided into six main sections, called "party systems."

The convention was experienced locally in the 1820s. The transition to the national level was relatively brief. The first national convention was held in 1830. With very few exceptions, the national convention nominated more candidates for the presidency and the vice presidency. The local primary were introduced in 1842. The presidential primaries were introduced several decades later, in 1912. Until 1968 the choice of candidates for president and vice-presidency remained firmly under the control of the convention. Since 1972 the appointment of presidential candidate is determined, in fact, the direct primary election, then by the voters, and the national convention enshrines the outcome of the primaries. The main evolutionary stages of the process of nomination of presidential candidates were: i) the phase of "congressional caucus" ii) the phase of the caucus / convention, or primary Indirect iii) the phase of the primary / caucus / convention; iv) the stage of direct primary election.

the . In the first post-revolutionary phase, from 1796 to 1824, applications were determined by the parties without consulting the people. The presidential candidate of a party he was appointed, by vote of an absolute majority, the congressional caucus , the assembly of the representatives of the ruling party Congress, convened for this purpose. With a system equivalent today in Italy the prime minister candidate of a party, or coalition, would be appointed by an absolute majority, by the assembled deputies and senators of that party, or coalition, and specially convened sufficiently in advance of the elections.

ii . The National Convention began in 1830-31 and opened the door to the nomination of candidates by popular vote. In the phase of the caucus / convention, from 1832 to 1908, the people were interested only in an indirect way, by "mass gatherings," said caucus .

iii . The first presidential election in which the primaries played an important role were those of 1912. The phase of the primary / caucus / convention, from the early twentieth century to 1968, saw the co-existence, sometimes conflicted, primary, direct, indirect primaries, caucuses and conventions. The people were consulted partly directly and partly indirectly. The weight of the direct popular vote was not decisive.

iv . The current phase began recently, between 1969 and 1972, with the introduction of modern primary and the subsequent restructuring of the parties. At this stage, the people are directly consulted and in a decisive way.

The three key dates in the process of evolution are therefore the 1831, with the birth of the National Convention, 1912, with the introduction of presidential primaries, and 1972, with the reforms that led to the open and modern system of parties governed by voters

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Phase congressional caucus

In the period between 1796 and 1824 presidential candidates and Vice President of one faction or party were identified by informal meetings of representatives to Congress belonging to one faction or party. Did not include any form of popular consultation in order.

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The meaning of the term "caucus"

In the U.S. the word "caucus" (pronounced ô k kәs, "cocus") means closed political meeting, typically between representatives and / or members of the same party. The etymological origins of the term are unclear. We know for a fact that was already in general use in Boston before 1780. William Gordon, in his history of the independence of the United States, written in 1788, used the word in reference to some caucus meetings between influential people of 1720 years. The meetings involved a dozen defendants, with the purpose of planning the introduction certain people in positions of trust and power.

According to experts, the hypotheses that could explain the origin of the word caucus are mainly three. Could come from caulker's , which means "the shipwright, the worker who ing cracks in the ship ( means caulk seal with a waterproof substance), or from Medieval Latin caucus in turn from the greek kaukus , kaukion , which means cup, drinking vessel, or dall'algonchiano caucauasu , counselor.

The first hypothesis is suggested by the shipwrights were holding meetings in Boston in the 1770s to protest against the action of British troops.

Any Latin origin has a more complex explanation. Colonial era were born the first informal political club, particularly in New England. They were natural extensions of forms of friendly camaraderie among colleagues and people who shared the same type of job or interest. In Boston one of these clubs began the regular practice of declaring which candidate will support a variety of local offices. It was called "Caucasus Clubb" the future president John Adams in a diary in 1763. Adams relates some details on the meetings of this club, according to information gathered from colleagues and acquaintances. The club met influential people, which allows choosing a moderator, voting on various issues, select Office regents, assessors, tax collectors and various representatives, before they were officially chosen in the city. The meetings of these clubs exercise significant influence. With their anticipated decisions of officers made the appointments to positions in the city. In the meeting the smoked heavily and often drank to the health of each a hot drink of liquor, beer and sugar, called "flip". This practice may explain the origin of the Latin word caucus, which means, of course, drinking vessel, but extensive research show that in that time the Latin word was not even familiar to educated people.

The etymology is more likely that instead algonchiana. Algonchiane languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bthat share a number of similarities that suggest a single root, spoken by many tribes of Native Americans. One such tribe the Algonquins, native to the area around Montreal and the Ottawa River. Algonchiana the possible origin of the word caucus is to be found in the word "kaw-kaw-was" among the Algonquins that means the one who gives advice, suggestions, encouragement. It comes from a verb meaning primarily "talk to", and then give advice, suggest, promote action. An indirect support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that even the English word "pow-wow," used to mean meeting, meeting, discussion, algonchiane origins, namely from "powwaw, sorcerer, or even magical ceremony, from" Pawe- wa, "which means" he dreams ", one who derives his power from the visions, divinations.

Britain the word caucus imported from the United States around 1870, but with a different meaning, ie the system of party organization governed, or "political machine ".

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The Birth of the first factions

In 1789 we held the first presidential elections in the United States. The candidates were not appointed in a formal way, because the parties did not exist. Even the factions were clearly defined. The entire process of nomination and election was held within the college of electors.

According the Constitution, each state chooses, in the manner it deems appropriate, a number of electors equal to the number of its representatives in Congress (deputies and senators). The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote. The results are transmitted to the President of the Senate, which should be counted in the presence of deputies and senators. The set of electors is called "electoral college". According to the original version of the Constitution, as amended, any large voter was entitled to express two votes for two different people, with the proviso that at least one of they came from a state other than the voter. He was elected president the candidate who obtained the most votes, provided it was also an absolute majority of the electoral college. He was elected vice-runner.

In 1789 in five states the electors were chosen by state parliaments, without any form of popular consultation, through elections in four states, in two states through a combination of the two methods. Two states had no right to any large voter, because they had not yet ratified the Constitution . in states in which they voted, the vote was subject to important restricted under the land.

George Washington, which enjoyed a broad consensus among the public, was unanimously elected by the electors. John Adams was elected vice president fairly easily, even if consent had not enjoyed equally indisputable.

The period was marked by the emergence of the Washington Bureau of the first factions. They are not yet characterized as political parties themselves. In the years before 1797, could distinguish between two main factions, a government, gathered around the Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and the Vice-President John Adams, and the opposition, gathered around the Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Representative James Madison. The faction of Hamilton and Adams was also known as the Federalist and its roots in the movement who had fought for a stronger national government than that provided by the Articles of Confederation ratified in 1781, to overcome which had helped write the Constitution 1787 and worked for its ratification. The Federalists were for a strong national government that balanced the power of states for a broad federal economic policy, modernization, development of industry and trade, protectionism that favors economic growth the country, for the creation of the Central Bank of the United States. They were inclined to interpret the Constitution broadly, so as to expand the powers of Congress. President Washington could not be placed in any faction or party, though, for the pro-government position of the federalists, some scholars include in that faction.

Opponents of the U.S. government had initially called by their opponents Antifederalists, in reference to the movement that a few years earlier had opposed the ratification of the Constitution. This name remained in history books, even if it is improper to call members of Congress Antifederalists serving in the Federal Government of the Union after swearing allegiance to the Constitution. In any case, opponents of the administration in Washington were convinced that the true essence of the Federal Republic was the defense of state sovereignty against the abuses of the federal government. Were opposed to the modernization of Hamilton and the central bank, in favor of the agricultural economy of plantations and farms. Represented primarily the interests of rural hinterland, defending individual rights, fighting for a strict interpretation of the Constitution, so as to limit the powers of Congress. The members of the faction "Antifederalists" were convinced that the loss of autonomy states could distort the republic. They feared that the president would become a monarch in a short time and that the central government would have transgressed the rights of individual citizens.

After the ratification of the Constitution of the political dialectic between the two sides produced a result of decisive importance for the history of the United States: the first ten amendments to the Constitu-tion, which constitute the so-called Bill of Rights ( Bill of Rights), today cited the Constitution and most often identified with it. The Charter of Rights was ratified at the end of 1791. It specifies the limitation on the power of Congress. Defend citizens' individual rights such as freedom of speech, press, association and religion. Establishes the right to bear arms. Forms prohibits unreasonable search, seizure and punishment. Prohibits the deprivation of life, liberty and property outside the law. Prohibits the obligation of self-incrimination and double trial for the same offense. Guarantees the right to a fair trial, public, of reasonable duration, with an impartial jury.

The Federalists controlled the Congress until 1800. In the elections of 1792 confirmed the presidency of Washington was granted, but the two factions were divided on the name of running mate. The Federalists supported John Adams yet. Madison and Jefferson organized factions of opposition in Congress and called themselves "Republicans". Documented statements of both Hamilton and Jefferson testified that in 1792 there were already a federalist party and a Republican Congress. Jefferson's Republicans have no links with the modern Republican Party, which came much later.

In October of that year a group of Republican leaders met in Philadeplhia and chose a running mate alternative to Adams, the New York state governor George Clinton. That meeting of Republican leaders is a cornerstone of American political history. Not yet a congressional caucus itself, but is the first example of a meeting between political leaders for the nomination of a candidate. It exceeds the Electoral College, and officers began the history of the process of nomination of candidates in the United States.

Washington was unanimously reelected President, Vice President Adams was confirmed with 77 votes and Clinton won it 55. The competition for the vice presidency was now evidence that the parties were born.

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The caucus is a meeting of congressional representatives and senators in Congress belong to a political party aimed at the party to nominate candidates for president and vice president of the United States. The first congressional caucus dates back to 1796. Federal Member of Congress met in secret in Philadelphia is to designate the candidate for president, John Adams, is to mate, Thomas Pinckney. By Republican Thomas Jefferson was the natural candidate for president and undisputed. Some senators met in caucus to designate, as in 1792, the vice president candidate to be attached to the same Jefferson. However, the Republicans who participated in that meeting failed to reach agreement to designate between the two candidates who most reliable caucus and ended in a stalemate.

the elections of 1796 the electors of 7 out of 16 states were still chosen by state parliaments, without any form of popular consultation. Adding up the votes of the states in which citizens could vote, the gap between Federalists and Republicans was less than 10%. Jefferson won in the electoral college by 68 votes against 71 for Adams. As a runner, Jefferson became vice president.

In those elections the shortcomings of the voting mechanism of the College election, as expected from the original version of the Constitution, became apparent. Since the election of the President and the Vice President were not separated, and every major voter has two votes, there was no guarantee that the candidate for vice president of a faction did not receive more votes than the presidential candidate. To avert this risk was necessary prior agreements between the major constituents. In some cases, such agreements could be used to harm a presidential candidate.

Hamilton, Adams did not see a good eye, began to do more to convince voters can vote for Pinckney, hoping to become president in place of Adams. Federalist voters did not follow the advice of Hamilton, but I could not even give Pinkney a number of votes sufficient to guarantee him the vice presidency. So it was that Pinkney was ranked third with 59 votes and Jefferson became vice president. In the next four years, Jefferson used his position to attack the policies of Adams. This helped him win the elections of 1800.

In the first phase of history, particularly in 1796 and in 1800, the congressional caucus were semi-secret. The information we have today [1] on those meetings are derived mainly from the private correspondence between the politicians of the time, diaries and accounts immediately or later. You rarely read news of the caucus in the newspapers. In 1796 a Boston newspaper Antifederalists denounced the "arrogance of members of Congress who met in caucus elected to control citizens and their constitutional rights." It finds mention of the federal caucus of 1800 in a local Republican newspaper, the Philadelphia Aurora , who attacked the meeting calling it "conclave Jacobin." Quest'alone burden of illegal immigration is still on the meaning of the word caucus, giving it a negative connotation.

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[1] The sources of the quotes that follow and the main sources of data on the caucus date meeting Thomas Coens, The Congressional Caucus System And The Election Of 1824 , SSHA Politics Network News, 1996, and Congressional Quarterly's Guide To U.S. Elections .

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The congressional caucus first party system

The first party system is clearly delineated in the mid-year 1790. He saw the opposition "party" of Federalist Alexander Hamilton and the Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, and determined American policy from 1797 to 1820. The "party" Federalist no organized party ever in itself, but remained fairly bland alliance of special interests. Reflects mainly the urban areas, and defended the interests of financial groups and merchants, eager to increase their turnovers. Its electoral base was concentrated in the Northeast. The Federalists generally came from upper class and their party was seen by the people as an essential part aristocrat. This connotation became a handicap especially towards the end of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, when the right to vote was extended to the lower-middle classes. The Federalists never develop an organization similar to that Jeffersonian Republicans, and put more little consensus in rural and agricultural that made up the majority of the electorate.

Jefferson laid the foundations of American individualism, was contrary to the central bank opposed the elitist aristocracy that supported the Federalists, proclaimed the "faith in people," he fought for the extension of the right to vote and the popular control over government. Republicans feared the growing intrusiveness of the financial groups that threatened the interests of large plantations. Were opposed to protectionist measures that forced the South to buy manufactured goods from the north instead of importing them from abroad cheaper. In cabinet meetings disputes between Hamilton and Jefferson were often very heated.

The Federalists were convinced that the correct view "Republican" was theirs. Republicans mocking the climax they hitch many names, including: antideferalisti, Jacobins and even "democratic." The noble sentiment was still fairly widespread, partly inherited from the founding fathers. For many of the protagonists of those historical moments, the republic was the guarantee that the representatives were chosen from among the wise and patriotic citizens. They saw democracy as the rule of the mob, ie a turbulent form of government, subject to disputes and factionalism. Excesses that followed the French Revolution helped to fuel these positions. The general sentiment changed as the right to vote was extended to larger sections of the population.

In various states of Jefferson's supporters used to be called "Democratic-Republicans," but this name is not established itself as never before identification of the party. Today the name "Democratic-Republican" is used by many historians to describe the party of Jefferson, avoiding any risk of confusion with the modern Republican Party, founded in 1854. Some Jeffersonians, proud to be called "democratic", began to use this name to identify themselves, thus establishing the first connection with the modern Democratic Party, who was born after the elections of 1832.

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The stalemate of the 1800 Republican

The congressional caucus method was employed from 1800 to 1824. In the elections of 1800, the Republican congressional caucus ran for Jefferson and was finally able to reach consensus on the name of the candidate to accompany Vice-President, who was Aaron Burr. Federal Member of Congress met in caucus in the Senate and re-nominated incumbent President John Adams. The elections were won much by Jefferson's Republicans, but in the electoral college there was a stalemate unique in the history of the United States.

The great Republican voters tried to reach an agreement to miss a single vote in Burr, in order to elect Jefferson president and Burr vice president. Due to a misunderstanding, however, the plan failed. Jefferson and Burr received exactly the same number of votes. The Constitution did not provide a mechanism to distinguish even the election of the president election of the vice president. In the case of two candidates of equal merit, as in the case where no candidate obtained an absolute majority, the decision was deferred to the House of Representatives.

However, the House of Representatives was a federalist majority. With the sole purpose of stopping Jefferson, the Federalists tried to win Burr. Burr had never had ambitions for the presidency and, as president, was not acceptable even to the Jeffersonian. The situation was unblocked after a week of stalemate, especially the intervention of Hamilton, Jefferson believed that the candidate less damaging to the country. At the 36th vote was finally elected Jefferson president. To avoid the recurrence of a situation like that, it was ratified in 1804, the twelfth amendment to the Constitution. It provides that the Electoral College vote for president and vice president separately.

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The domain

After the victory of 1800 the Republicans dominated U.S. policy until 1824. Led the country for seven consecutive terms, with Jefferson, Madison, James Monroe and John Quincy Adams. At that time, always use the congressional caucus system for nominating candidates for president and for vice president. While the Republicans were growing up, the Federalists began to decline. They saw their representation in Congress fall progressively. Already in 1804 were in serious difficulties. That year there was no formal meeting of members of the Federalists in Congress to name candidates, who were selected informally, in ways which are not known the details. The Federalists did campaign so disorganized and not very convinced. In 1808 and in 1812 recorded a brief and temporary return of consent, as a reaction to certain decisions made by the Republicans in government. In those elections to nominate candidates by secret meetings leading federalists gathered from various EU states. That of 1812 was the last Federalist caucus for the nomination of a presidential candidate. In 1816 it was no federalist candidate for the presidency. In the mid-year 1820, the party disappeared at the local level.

With Republicans undisputed masters of the political scene, the U.S. knew a short period of one-party, so that in 1820 President Monroe was confirmed almost unanimously (only one missing was the Great Elector).

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The apogee of the congressional caucus

The Republican caucus in 1804 brought together 108 representatives of Congress, including senators and representatives. Jefferson was appointed by acclamation and an agreement was reached in favor of a new running mate. He recorded two important innovations: the caucus appointed a committee of 13 people charged to conduct the election campaign, reports appeared in the newspapers of the caucus. They were the first tangible signs of the party organization. Federalist leaders chose the candidates for president and for vice president in an informal way. Members of Congress began to discuss openly the system of nomination of candidates by caucus.

In 1808 the practice of congressional caucus reached its apogee. The competition and political maneuvering that took place in that kind of assembly polarize much of the campaign. On reflection, began to emerge early forms of protest against the practice. The protests spread rapidly among the supporters of political leaders or candidates excluded from the disgruntled one. In due time, all 146 Republican representatives in Congress, along with a number of federalists who supported the Republican cause, were formally invited by the leader who presided over the caucus in 1804. Other leaders of the party challenged the call. The Republican caucus recorded the participation of about ninety members of Congress. The person appointed by the Republican caucus was James Madison, who later became president. The caucus of 1808 appointed a committee appointed to ensure the election campaign, consisting of 15 representatives in Congress. The committee was also authorized to fill vacancies, if a candidate nominated were missing before the election.

Several representatives and senators refused to participate in the caucus. James Monroe, one of the candidates, not gave up his race for the presidency even after he was beaten by Madison in voting in the caucus. 17 members of Congress signed a document of protest against the appointment of Madison and for the first time seriously put into question how the caucus system of nomination. Even the candidate appointed vice president, George Clinton, unhappy about not being named presidential candidate, publicly attacked the caucus. To quell these forms of dissent, the caucus endorsed a resolution in defense of himself. The resolution defined the caucus as "the most convenient way to see everyone and respect the interests and desires of all." They were the first signs of weakness of this system of nomination of candidates. The caucus adopted the following resolutions similar to that of 1808.

part federalist, 25-30 leaders gathered in a caucus to confirm the candidates nominated four years ago, which were easily defeated by Madison in the general election.

the congressional caucus was recognized authority for a couple of decades. Many observers believed that the members Congress formed a representative group to choose the best qualified presidential candidates. Deputies and senators were, in their opinion, the best and most popular political leaders, representing all states in the nation and could meet with relative ease in the capital and its surroundings. However, the system proved inadequate very quickly to the needs of the newly formed American democracy. The aura of secrecy that hung on the caucus was never completely removed. In 1810, a federalist in North Carolina called the caucuses "a private meeting of party night in which they discussed specific measures, for reasons that can not be revealed to the public."

In 1812 the Republican caucus reaffirmed Madison freely, whereas the Federalists met secretly last presidential caucus in their history.

In 1816, the Federalist opposition was already weak. For the Republicans meet in caucuses to nominate the presidential candidate was tantamount in practice to elect him president. A first Republican caucus held in that year recorded a low participation, only 68 members of Congress. Hoping to collect a greater participation, a second caucus was held several days later. Will bring together 119 representatives and senators. However, 22 did not participate in either the second meeting, and at least 15 of those were outspoken against the caucus system. The caucus appointed Monroe with a small margin, after having passed several resolutions aimed at preventing hard that you get to vote. Meanwhile, meetings were held in the country in protest against the caucus.

The short period of one-party dominated by Republicans, after the decline of the Federalists, is called the 'era of good feelings "( Era of Good Feelings ). In 1820, the outgoing President Monroe was re-nominated without question. The Republican caucus was nearly useless. There attended by only 50 Republican members of Congress on 191 and decided not to appoint any candidate. Monroe was almost unanimously re-elected president.

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The decline of the congressional caucus

The lack of any real opposition was of no benefit to the Republican Party, which, indeed, was soon torn by internal divisions. They surfaced strongly in the presidential election of 1824, which also marks the end of the congressional caucus.

The Republican Party was divided around the personalities that should have been Monroe's legacy. More that the programmatic content, the electoral competition was focused on candidates' personalities and the geographical origin of their supporters. The four leading presidential candidates were: Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, Henry Clay and John Q. Adams, John Calhoun to which is added, which at first seemed willing to run for president and finally content with the vice-presidency. Crawford had the support of Republican members in Congress. His appointment by the congressional caucus was practically a foregone conclusion. I realized that his rivals had little chance of getting the nomination against Crawford. Thus began a campaign to make its own account as early as 1823, long before compared to the caucuses and elections. Of conviction or opportunism, added their names to the list of opponents of the congressional caucus. As their chances of getting the nomination faded, their attacks against the caucus became more direct and frequent.

Adams, who became president in that election, considered the congressional caucus against the spirit of the Constitution and tending to corruption. He was convinced that at that time the majority of the people were completely opposed to the nomination of candidates by congressional caucus. In his diaries he declared that it will refuse to appoint any of the caucus. John C. Calhoun declared that the congressional caucus was "the agency of a few dedicated politicians intrigue." Henry Clay was silent on the issue until rumors that attributing some chance of being appointed. When the games became clear in favor of Crawford, Clay also lashed out against the caucus.

The attack more vigorously against the caucus was not launched by the candidates in competition, but their supporters in all states of the Union. The state parliaments, as the most representative authority after the Congress, they felt entitled to take a stand. The shortcomings of the system of appointment of the presidential candidates will urged to intervene in the political battle, often in support of candidates from their state. For example, in 1823 the parliament of Tennessee, Jackson's home state, passed a resolution to the effect that the congressional caucus was against the spirit of the Constitution and endangering the liberties of the American people. Other resolutions urged members of Congress from Tennessee not to take part in any congressional caucus and call on other EU states to follow that line of conduct. Maryland followed the example first. Officially condemned the caucus and asked his congressional delegation not to participate.

However, at that time did not exist in a system capable of passing the challenged congressional caucus.

The Republican caucus met in February 1824 and appointed Crawford, according to forecasts. Was attended by only 66 of 261 representatives and senators convened. The caucus also approved a final resolution in defense of himself. It reiterated that the caucus was "the best way to collect and concentrate the feelings and wishes of the people of the Union." Also appointed a committee to write an appeal to the people, to express great concern about the damage that a possible break-up of the Republican Party could cause.

rivals Crawford gave for not losers. They argued that the application designated by the caucus reflected only the location of a banquet a few politicians, not the entire nation. The popular resentment against the caucus grew fur-there.

Each alternative candidate to Crawford tried to get its democratic legitimacy by making mention of the Republican caucus state parliaments. The caucus state was the congressional caucus of the same state, the assembly that gathered the representatives and senators in office at the Republican state legislature. Clay was nominated by the caucus of 5 states. Calhoun was appointed by the caucus of South Carolina and Tennessee from Jackson. John Q. Adams was invested by most New England states. Nominations were also promoted by supporters who had gathered in public meetings and conventions spontaneous popular throughout the country.

To reduce the number of contenders in the race, the candidates tried to make deals. Adams offered him the vice presidency to Jackson, who refused. Calhoun resigned to run as president and agreed to support Jackson and run for the vice presidency by his side. Calhoun's candidacy for vice president was also supported by Adams. Other maneuvers were attempted, without success. At the end of the field remained in Crawford, Jackson, Clay and Adams.

elections none of the four contenders won an absolute majority of electors. Andrew Jackson was ranked first, John Q. Adams second, William H. Crawford and Henry Clay the third quarter. According to the Constitution , in cases like this the election of the President passed the House of Representatives, which must decide between the top three. The representatives do not vote individually, but for state delegations, and each delegation may vote. The winner is the candidate who obtains an absolute majority.

In 1824 the Chamber was headed by Henry Clay. Clay Adams shared positions on the maintenance of protectionism and the incentives for industrial growth, and opposed the ideas of Jackson, particularly on the central bank. Therefore, Clay supported Adams, who was elected president in the first round with a small margin. Calhoun easily won the vice presidency. Shortly after Adams appointed Clay secretary of state. This angered Jackson, who accused Adams and Clay have made a secret pact, in exchange for the presidency to one of the secretary of state to another. Jackson did not recognize the election results and began a long campaign four years against Adams.

The end of the congressional caucus coincided with the end of the first party system and the 'era of good feelings. " The congressional caucus system was identified with the period of Republican domination. Did not survive the crushing of that party.

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The reasons for the decline of the congressional caucus

Beyond the contingencies that led to its end, the congressional caucus method had several shortcomings. The most serious problem was institutional. Gere-elect to be a congressional caucus, the candidates for president and vice president were to have the support of representatives and senators in Congress. In other words, the nominations for the positions were decided by the executive power with representatives of legislative power, violating the principle of separation of powers. The congressional caucus tended to subject the President and the Vice President to Congress. The second problem was the degree of representativeness. For the congressional caucus attended by only members of the ruling party in Congress. Geographical areas where for some reason the party was unable to elect MPs, or they just elected, were not represented or were underrepresented. Often local members of the party had very different positions from those delegations that were to represent them in caucus. The variety of positions within the party was not well reflected. Some problems were partially solved by switching to a mixed system, that of an enlarged caucus, which included delegates from the regions who have no elected representatives. It was a small step in the direction of the convention. For example, the last of the Federalist party caucus, when the party was in decline and the members were not many Federalists in Congress, also took part in local leaders from various states. Even in the broader caucus, however, control was firmly in the hands of a small group of elected representatives, political leaders, or agents, who make decisions for all the party.

The other difficulty of the caucus were purely political. The caucus, while he was pleased with a faction, that of the candidate, all other displeased. Inevitably, the supporters of the candidates nominated were put in to campaign for its own account, he spoke directly to the people, challenged in an increasingly open system that penalized them, stirred up popular resentment against it. By a growing number of people on caucus was deemed non-democratic. For them to choose candidates by congressional caucus, enlarged or not, is to deny that the people were able to govern themselves, as well as to prevent him from doing so. Opponents of the caucus complained in particular the lack of public discussion, closing of meetings, the lack of representativeness, the elite control over government. The ironically dubbed "King Caucus." The debate spread throughout the Union. And passionately involved politicians, the public, the media. A North Carolina newspaper wrote that the problem was to decide whether he should be the people to operate or not. An Ohio newspaper called the caucuses a "conspiracy" or a "combine" [2]. He wrote that the people would never have renounced his rights to be controlled by "king caucus". In January 1824 a member of parliament Indiana branded the caucus as a "anti-American, tyrannical, dangerous for our government," which would endanger "the sacred rights, prosperity and happiness of the American people." Even the state caucuses were under attack. in 1824 in Ohio supporters of Henry Clay were branded as "the clique of the caucus, for the investiture of their sovereign leader. All this helped to exacerbate the negative sense that the word caucus brings with it today.

The extension of voting rights to larger sections of the population helped to make manifest the inadequacy of the congressional caucus and lack of representativeness. The Constitution provides that states choose their presidential electors by the method they prefer. The electors were imagined as the wisest people of various states, able to identify the most qualified person to hold the office of president. In the initial phase of the republic some states chose to delegate the appointment of their electors to their respective state parliaments. Other states chose to refer the choice of the people. Other states still use a mixed system. Between 1800 and 1824 the proportion of states that describe the electors by popular vote rose from 16 to 4 on 18 out of 24. The Constitution leaves the were also to determine the requirements for the right to vote. In the first decades of the republic, the restriction granted to white male adults, many states restrict the voting rights to landowners, or on the basis of wealth or religion, or demanding payment of a fee. In the early nineteenth century, suffrage was extended quickly. Some states did vote to all taxpayers. Others experimented with universal male suffrage. In 1810, the last restrictions were removed the right to vote based on religion. Subsequently, restrictions based on wealth and land ownership were gradually reduced. They disappeared completely only in 1856.

should be noted that the founding fathers had in mind a very different direct popular election of the president. They thought that rarely would a candidate obtained an absolute majority of electors, and that in most cases the election was sent to the House of Representatives. This event occurred only in 1824, the only case in history. In fact, over the years, the people took possession of the election of the president. The greater democratic involvement in the election prompted the request for a mirror popular involvement in the process of nomination of candidates. Overcoming a method of nomination of candidates shortly transparent as the congressional caucus became inevitable.

would be naive to believe that opposition to the caucus system was based solely on noble principles of democracy, such as questions of constitutionality and the defense of popular sovereignty. Very often the political agenda is dictated by convenience and opportunism of the moment. Opponents of the caucus simply doing their own interests. They tried to defend a system that clearly damaged. Often, while attacking the congressional caucus, did not scruple to accept the nominations of state caucuses. However, the opportunism of individuals, in this as in many other cases in American history, aroused feelings genuinely democratic and to move towards the best direction.

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[ 2] The source of the quotes: Thomas Coens, The Congressional Caucus System And The Election Of 1824 , SSHA Politics Network News, 1996.

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The local caucus

In the first decades of the republic, the caucus was also used at the state level, to nominate candidates in local elections. In each state representatives and senators of the party elected to the state legislature met in an assembly, called the caucus state, where the party to nominate candidates for state offices, as well as candidates representing the Congress (Senators were not elected) and presidential electors. In many homes the participation in the caucus was extended to state party leaders from various geographic areas of the state. Some caucus state party committees organized and took care of other aspects of the political machinery of the party, as election campaigns at the local level. As we have seen, often the caucus state got involved in the presidential election because the candidates had no chance of being nominated by the caucus Congress sought the investiture of the government caucus to run for president.

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The legislative caucus of the system

Today the word caucus in the U.S. has various meanings. In some states, delegates to the national convention are described by a system called caucus or caucus / convention, which will be described in the following chapters and has nothing to do with the congressional caucus. In other contexts the word is used to indicate a caucus meeting of any party or any representative of the party, often aimed at determining a political strategy or a plan of action.

In the early years of the republic met, informally and without any special procedural rules, legisla-tive congressional caucus in Congress. These were meetings between groups of representatives and senators belonging to the same party for deli-linear common legislative objectives and organizing work to that end. Since 1816 the legislative caucus were gradually replaced by the congressional committee system, similar to our committees. The difference between a caucus and a committee that brings together members of the caucus of one party, while the Committee comprises representatives of most political parties, typically in numbers proportional the strength of each. Today, the legislative caucuses remain merely intended to designate candidates for elective positions in the House of Representatives.

The legislative caucus also exist at the state level. In some states the legislative caucus of the majority party get together almost every day and create much of the legislative initiatives, compensate for the differences between the different points of view within the party, produce the majority of agreements for the final vote in the state parliament. Often there are also the minority caucus of the party to organize the opposition. In other states the caucuses are less important, they only gather annually or to organize election campaigns. A local county and district, the variety of partisan caucus is likely to provide a general classification impossible.

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Phase caucus / convention

Since 1823 the supporters of Clay, Adams, Calhoun and Jackson became convinced that the presidential candidates were to be designated with a more relevant and democratic system, which exceeded the disputed congressional caucus. Throughout the presidential campaign of 1824, the four candidates received the investiture of public meetings of citizens and popular convention. The debate on the appointment system is extended to all regions of the Union and was followed with participation by several local newspapers, who became spokesman for the request was that the people spontaneously organize popular assemblies and conventions for the proposed applications and support candidates. In 1824 a Connecticut newspaper wrote that "applications should be decided by the convention of the people, chosen by the people." An Ohio newspaper urged citizens to organize meetings in the counties, cities and districts, to appoint delegates to send to some central meeting place where they could express their wishes and demands of promoting the community.

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Birth popular convention [3] At the second party system

At local level the transition from the method of the caucus of the convention took place long before at the national level. Already in 1800 the Republican Party held a state convention in New Jersey. The tendency to replace the caucus with the convention quickly spread, and helped to increase the movement of opposition to the congressional caucus.

The origins of popular convention can be traced in evolution caucus of the colonial club we mentioned above. In pre-revolutionary period, some of these meetings are rapidly converted into large assemblies. They attracted people interested in forms of protest and demonstration. Participation in these gatherings grew especially after the Stamp Act of 1765, by which the American colonies to the British Parliament imposed a tax on all legal documents, newspapers and even playing cards, to finance the maintenance of military presence. The American reaction to the Stamp Act was a prelude to revolution. In New England, during the revolution, the mass meetings were convened to iron out differences of opinion around the patriotic cause.

The county convention was born in New England after the revolution. In the northeast of Jefferson's supporters were a small minority, outnumbered numerically by Federalists John Adams. In the parliaments of those states were represented by a small number of representatives and senators. The state Republican caucus, the assembly which was to bring together those few MPs would not have had the necessary authority to decide the nominations for local offices. Alternatively, an early form of his way to the county convention. It was a mass rally extended to the county level, in which the supporters of Jefferson selected a list of persons to be candidates for state offices. Subsequently, the state Jeffersonian parliamentary select the official candidate of the party that is in your list, make sure at this point to reflect the popular will. The Jeffersonian faction, who presented himself as the party of the masses and accused the Federalists to have elitist tendencies, so began the process of opening to the people. The system spread rapidly in the Mid-Atlantic region and experienced the greatest success in the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware in the early nineteenth century.

Those gatherings of supporters were called "caucus". Even today, the word caucus is used to describe the mass rallies of supporters of a party. In truth, the system just described could be called so as convention caucus, because he had some characteristics of both features and some of the other, but it was neither the one nor the other. Citizens were invited to make direct decisions on the issues of the party, such as applications. This is a consultation system made of a single pass, still used in some states for particular purposes, which we will discuss later.

Soon enough the kind of consultation was divided into two steps. In the year 1790 in upstate New York were held mass meetings to select delegates to county conventions, but had only a limited purpose or designated special candidate. In the 1820s politicians Crawford County, Pennsylvania, had the idea to organize mass rallies of supporters of the party in each city where the county was divided. In these caucuses, the people chose their "delegates", to be sent to the county convention. The county convention in turn, nominated candidates for elective office in the county.

The method invented by Crawford County, that the mass meeting, or caucus, combined with the county convention, quickly spread throughout the Pennsylvania, and later in several other states, north and south. Pretty soon, the county convention began to be used to choose delegates to county conventions to be sent to a state party. The step that separates the state convention by the national convention would seem short, but we must take into account the difficulties of communication and movement of those years.

The multi-level system so organized is called the caucus / convention. It remained for decades the backbone of the parties and the key instrument to regulate public participation in political life. The caucus is the mass rally where supporters choose their representatives to send to the convention, those delegates. The convention is the assembly of delegates and the highest authority of the party. It decides on all matters of the party. In particular, decide on the rules, including rules of the caucus and the convention itself, and to nominate candidates for public office. In some cases, the convention of a layer has the task of choosing convention delegates to send to the next higher level, which has responsibilities similar, related to the level of party organization.

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[3] Main source: Richard E.Berg-Andersson, An Historical Analisis Of The Presiden-TiAl Nominating Process, TheGreenPapers.

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The period between 1824 and 1854 is identified with the period of the second party system, which was formed after the crushing of the Republican Party founded by Jefferson. It marked the birth of the political parties themselves.

After the election of 1824 Jackson went on to accuse Adams of having a pact with evil Clay for the presidency and always considered an illegitimate president. Soon Republican representatives in both houses of Congress were divided into pro-Adams and pro-Jackson.

The presidential elections of 1828 were transitional elections. The congressional caucus not was more feasible. The national convention, intended to replace, was not yet born. In October 1825, even three years before the election, Jackson was named presidential candidate by the parliament of his home state, Tennessee. Jackson accepted the nomination in a speech that parliament. Adams was nominated by a convention but the state of Pennsylvania. Subsequently, both Adams and Jackson got the investiture of other legislatures, conventions and public meetings. Elections Adams and Jackson showed up with no party affiliations defined. Jackson took the coveted revenge on his rival, winning by a good margin.

If Jefferson had proclaimed himself "the people's side," Jackson was the first president "of the people," that is popular origins. Shooting the themes of the first Jefferson, against the elite and centralism. Was contrary to the central bank and protectionism. He used his powers as President with great prejudice, in fact strengthen them considerably to the powers of Congress. Systematically applying the spoils system, he renewed a fifth of government employees. Allows employees hired by the former to keep their jobs only if they expressed loyalty to him and his party. He changed the meaning of the presidential veto, because not only used for block the action of Congress, which held unconstitutional, but in any case useful. Collided with the Vice-President Calhoun, former Vice-President Adams administration. Aiming to get rid of ministers loyal to Calhoun, he ordered all the government to resign and appoint a new one. He regarded these practices its own right and an absolute democratic normality. The Jacksonians favored the growing democratization of American policy and benefited in terms of consensus. They collected the votes of many workers, immigrants and new settlers established themselves in areas west of the Alleghenies.

After the elections of 1828 in which the opposing factions had split the old Republican party organized themselves into political parties themselves, the National-Democratic-Republicans and Republicans. Both parties sought to keep alive the ties with the Republican Party of Jefferson. The Democratic-Republicans adopted this name to call the Jefferson professed faith in the people and democracy of the 'common man "for Jackson. Supporters of Adams and Clay called themselves National-Republicans, since they wanted the United States as a nation, not a confederation of states, and because it's policy of strengthening the federal government conducted by Adams. Many positions of the National-Republicans Federalists echoed those of the deceased. Favored national policies for growth and industry support, were for protectionism, the central bank and the federal administration of public lands, denounced the spoils system, opposed to the tyranny of executive power. In terms of the agreement the National-Republicans were penalized by their central location, which contrast with the populist tendencies of the time and the prevailing opinion, more sensitive to the autonomy of the states.